Predicting Risky Sexual Behavior: Masculinity Ideology, Ethnicity, and Alcohol Use

Adam Cortez

Masculinity ideology has been proposed to explain the social construction of masculinity and the internalization of social norms that define appropriate male behaviors and expectations (Thompson & Pleck, 1995). The public conception of masculinity, which tends to be reinforced through the media and interpersonal relationships, oftentimes places it in stark contrast to femininity and homosexuality, perpetuating the idea that masculinity is often established by a man’s attempt to prove what he is not (i.e., not homosexual, not sensitive, not feminine; Franklin, 1984). Furthermore, masculinity ideology-adhering males often strive to embody stereotypes of masculinity, including being aggressive, independent, unemotional, confident, ambitious, and dominant over women and homosexuals (Pleck & Pleck, 1980).
The literature on masculinity ideology has established a positive association between men’s high masculinity ideology-adherence and their propensity to engage in risky sexual behaviors (Murnen, Wright, & Kalzuny, 2002; Pleck, Sonenstein, & Ku, 1993). These behaviors include having a higher number of less intimate sexual encounters (i.e., casual sex lacking in passion), a higher number of overall sexual partners, high levels of sexual aggression toward women, negative attitudes towards condoms, and lower condom usage, which, in turn, increases the risk of sexually transmitted infections and unplanned pregnancies (Kinsey Institute, 2012; Murnen et al., 2002; Pleck et al., 1993). Specifically, statistics from the Kinsey Institute (2012) reveal that men between the ages of 18 and 24 report having used a condom during 45% of the past ten vaginal intercourse acts; that by age 18, 20% of men report to having had between five and ten sex partners; and that about 7.1% of heterosexual males between the ages of 20 and 24 report having a sexually transmitted infection.

Despite the known dangers of engaging in risky sexual behaviors, young adults between the ages of 18 and 24 continue to practice unsafe sex (The Kinsey Institute, 2012). The present review of the literature seeks to examine the relation between heterosexual men’s adherence to masculinity ideology and their engagement in risky sexual behavior in relation to (1) ethnic differences, and (2) the moderating effect of alcohol.

Ethnic Disparities

Men who ascribe to high levels of masculinity ideology tend to rate higher on levels of both ethnic belonging and sexual activity than non-masculine-adhering men (Abreu, Goodyear, Campos, & Newcomb, 2000; Levant & Richmond, 2006; Levant et al., 2003; Thompson & Pleck, 1995). The level of ethnic belonging among Black, Latinos, and Whites is positively correlated with adherence to masculinity ideology (Abreu et al., 2000), with Latinos adhering most to the traditional roles of men (e.g., protecting, providing for, and dominating the family unit; Casas, Wagenheim, Banchero, & Mendoza-Romero, 1994; Kane, 2000). More specifically, previous literature has established a positive association between Black and Latino men’s level of ethnic belonging as being associated with high levels of masculinity and sexual engagement (Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000; Hammond & Mattis, 2005; McClure, 2006; Mosher & Tomkins, 1988) while depicting the Asian male as an asexual model minority (Chan, 1998; Mok, 1998).

Statistics on condom use reveal a disparity in rates amongst ethnic and racial groups, with condom usage being higher among Black and Latino men than White men (Kinsey Institute, 2012). Despite this finding, however, a body of literature suggests that although Black men are using condoms more frequently than White men, they are also having significantly more sexual encounters (Bowleg et al., 2011; Kinsey Institute, 2012; LaPollo et al, 2014). A strong adherence to masculinity in Black men, accounted for by having a larger amount of sexual partners, puts them at higher risk for contracting HIV/AIDs and STIs, as compared to White men who adhere highly to masculinity (LaPollo, Bond, & Lauby, 2014). Research suggests that Black men who ascribe to masculinity ideology tend to internalize risky sexual practices such as the belief that a man ought to have sex with multiple women concurrently, that a man should not decline sex, and that condom usage is a woman’s responsibility (Bowleg, Teti, Massie, Patel, Malebranche, & Tschann, 2011).
Engaging in casual sex, another manifestation of sexually risky behavior due to its implications for contracting HIV/AIDs and STIs, (Black, Kehrberg, Flumerfelt, & Schlosser, 1997), is also viewed differently by males of diverse ethnic backgrounds (Ahrold & Meston, 2010). Specifically, Asian-American men tend to report higher conservatism with regards to casual sex and therefore tend to engage in fewer casual sex encounters (Ahrold & Meston, 2010). Conversely, Latino males’ high masculinity ideology-adherence is associated with the tendency to engage in sex outside of their primary sexual relationship more frequently as compared to other ethnic groups (Ahrold & Meston, 2010).

This body of research indicates that ethnic identification and in-group belonging are important factors to examine with regard to masculinity ideology-adherence and its association with risky sex. The literature reveals another risk that is important to consider: the moderating effect that alcohol has on masculinity ideology and engagement in risky sexual behavior.

Alcohol as a Moderator

A bulk of research has established the moderating effect of alcohol on masculinity ideology-adhering men’s propensity to engage in risky sexual behaviors, with higher alcohol intoxication associated with stronger urges to engage in risky sexual behaviors (Capraro, 2000; Locke & Mahalik, 2005; Murnen, Wright, & Kaluzny, 2002; Olmstead, Pasley, & Finchman, 2013). Alcohol consumption is traditionally identified as a male-centered activity that reinforces masculinity and a disassociation from femininity (Capraro, 2000; Lemle & Miskind, 1989). The moderation of alcohol consumption can lead to a further understanding on how masculinity ideology-adhering men engage in risky sexual behavior.

Perpetration of sexual abuse and engagement in risky sexual behaviors (specifically unprotected and highly frequent sexual intercourse) are correlated with alcohol consumption, with alcohol intoxication attributing to over 97,000 incidents of sexual assault or rape among college-aged students, ages 18-24 (NIAAA, 2014). Sexually aggressive acts are made possible through situational moderators in which men are able to pressure women to consume alcohol, which, in turn, allows for the manipulation and control of women within sexual contexts (Murnen, Wright, & Kaluzny, 2002). Research indicates that this is more likely to occur among masculinity ideology-adhering heterosexual men that hold permissive views toward casual sex and their own promiscuity and lack respect toward their female partner (Olmstead et al., 2013).

Further, a body of literature suggests that it is not just actual symptoms of alcohol intoxication that are associated with high levels of risky sexual behavior, but also perceived symptoms of intoxication (Paul, McManus, & Hayes, 2000). One study reported that 90% of their masculinity ideology-adhering young-adult heterosexual male participants had used overt, sexually aggressive tactics to make advances toward women in a drinking setting (e.g., a bar or fraternity party) without actually drinking (Thompson & Cracco, 2008). Though alcohol has largely been considered a male-centered activity (Capraro, 2000; Lemle & Miskind, 1989), current literature suggests that heterosexual men are now using the effects of alcohol to establish their masculinity by manipulating sexual interest in women (Murnen et al., 2002) and being sexually aggressive towards them (Thompson & Cracco, 2008).

Conclusion

The review of the literature discussed how higher levels of ethnic belonging in Black, Latino, and White men is associated with a higher adherence to masculinity ideology and sexual aggression towards women (Abreu et al., 2000; LaPollo et al., 2014; Levant & Richmond, 2006; Levant et al., 2003; Thompson & Pleck, 1995; ). It also explored moderating role that alcohol plays in masculinity ideology-adhering men’s heightened engagement in risky sexual behavior (Capraro, 2000; Locke & Mahalik, 2005; Murnen et al., 2002; Thompson & Cracco, 2008).

By bringing awareness to the dangers of risky sexual behavior in this population, this review seeks to promote healthy sexual behavior (e.g., condom usage, contraceptive, fewer sexual partners, respect towards partner) and identify demographic information on the occurrences of sexual encounters with respect to ethnicity.

The heavy basis on self-report measures is a major limitation to the body of literature that has focused on masculinity ideology. The desire to be viewed as socially desirable, often seen with self-report measures, may lead to an under-reporting of both adherence to masculinity ideology and engagement in risky sexual behaviors in fear of being stigmatized as a perpetrator of violence. Also, it would be worth suggesting the opposite: a man’s higher level of masculinity ideology endorsement may also cause an over-reporting of engagement in risky sexual behavior in an attempt to prove his masculinity.

Future research should focus on measuring both adherence to masculinity ideology and engagement in risky sexual behavior in a more systematic manner that would address the limitation of social desirability. It would also be interesting to consider how masculinity ideology may have an influence on gender-nonconforming heterosexual men (i.e., men that deviate from traditional masculine roles).

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