Mikell Bursky
Everyday, hundreds of millions of people around the world commute to and from work using various forms of transportation, such as automobiles, buses, and trains (U.S. Department of Transportation, 2018). Regardless of the form, commuters are exposed to an array of psychophysiological stressors along with a multitude of unpleasant environmental stimuli, such as fatigue, pollution, overcrowding, and vehicular accidents (Chillrud et al., 2004; Gottholmseder, Nowotny, Pruckner, & Theurl, 2009; Karlsson, Nilsson, & Möller, 2005; Martell & Dietz, 1992). When these factors interplay with an individual’s genetic susceptibility towards developing a maladaptive stress response, these conditions may lead to the manifestation of various pathologies (Evan, 2003; Ma, Li, Kwan, & Chai, 2003; McEwen & Stellar, 1993). A primary way in which individuals attempt to cope with these high levels of commuter stress is by distracting themselves through the frequent use of their cellular phones (Elhai, Dvorak, Levine, & Hall, 2017; Johansson, Nordin, Heiden, & Sandström, 2010; Thomee, 2018). Although this may temporarily alleviate feelings elicited by stressful commutes, the use of a cellular phone as a coping mechanism may be maladaptive in the long run. Research shows that overuse of phones has been linked to abnormalities in the brain which are associated with increased feelings of stress, decreased emotional regulation abilities, and sleep issues (Hu, Long, Lyu, Zhou, & Chen, 2017; Sansone & Sansone, 2013). A potential alternative option for alleviating commuter stress can be found in the practice of mindfulness, a method of attentional cultivation that has been shown to influence stress response towards a plethora of difficult psychological and physical circumstances (Brand, Holsboer-Trachsler, Naranjo & Schmidt, 2012; Lindsay, Young, Smyth, Brown, & Creswell, 2018). Mindfulness is a non-judgmental, open-awareness of the present moment (Bishop et al., 2004; Kabat‐Zinn, 2003; Ludwig & Kabat-Zinn, 2008). This state of being relaxed, yet awake and present has been found to increase subjective experiences of one’s personal well-being, while simultaneously regulating and enhancing physiological functioning in the form of an increased immune response and decreased cortisol levels (Brand et al., 2012; Davidson et al., 2003; Lindsay et al., 2018). Thus, this review sought to explore the following question: How can mindfulness modulate stress response in order to facilitate a more adaptive commuter experience?
Commuting and Psychophysiological Stress
Commuting is often unpredictable and uncontrollable due to a multiplicity of factors, such as traffic and accidents. The different elements faced during a commute are perceived as psychologically and physically stressful by commuters who cannot cope with the journey, with longer durations of commutes associated with increased stress levels (Gimenez-Nadal & Molina, 2019; Gottholmseder et al., 2009). Commuter stress is defined as any self-reported psychological or objectively measured psychophysiological changes that are experienced as a form of stress attributable to commuting (Fleige et al., 2005; Wener, Evans, & Boately, 2005). Individuals who experience more difficulties during their commute demonstrate higher levels of psychophysiological stress (Gottholmseder et al., 2009; Novaco, Stokols, & Milanesi, 1990). Psychological stress taxes the commuter by influencing their physiological functioning, which subsequently leads to a build up upon the original psychological stress, eventually leading to an increased risk for various pathologies (DeMorrow, 2018). As such, it is essential to understand the neurobiological processes involved in the activation of commuter stress, in order to figure out how to mitigate this process using mindfulness.
Commuting takes a physical toll on the body as a byproduct of psychological stress and anxiety via the activation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis, a network of brain regions and neuroendocrine glands that play a crucial role in the release of stress hormones (DeMorrow, 2018; Joseph & Whirledge, 2017). During stressful experiences, such as commuting, the HPA Axis responds through an increased secretion of cortisol. This hormone is meant to help an individual’s body rapidly adapt, with higher levels of cortisol showing elevation in overly stressed individuals (Choi et al., 2014; Levine, Zagoory-Sharon, Feldman, Lewis, & Weller, 2007; Sapolsky, 2000). Over time, these hormones act as self-created neurotoxins which have been shown to degenerate brain regions vital for healthy cognitive and emotional functioning (Leonard, 2006). By maintaining elevated stress hormones in a dysregulated fashion, the psychophysiological system is transformed into a negative feedback loop, leading to an increase in anxiety, depression, and cognitive deficits amongst commuters who are not equipped to effectively counteract this (DeMorrow, 2018; Leonard, 2006). The over-stimulation of the HPA Axis places their psychophysiology in a state of constant overdrive which subsequently weakens this system (DeMorrow, 2018; Malpas, 2010; McCorry, 2007). Without the appropriate amount of time for rest and recovery, individuals might develop chronic conditions, including heart disease, hypertension, hypoglycemia, anxiety, and depression (DeMorrow, 2018; Malpas, 2010). These conditions affect commuter health, quality of life, well-being, and functional productivity, which highlights the importance of maintaining a well-regulated HPA Axis free from overstimulation.
A key component involved in the triggering of the HPA Axis is the amygdala, which is involved in the detection of emotionally arousing, threatening, fear inducing, stressful and socially relevant stimuli (Delgado, Nearing, LeDoux, & Phelps, 2008; Freeman, Stolier, Ingbretsen, & Hehman, 2014; LeDoux, 2007; Morgane, 2005). Activation in the amygdala triggers the brain’s hypothalamus, which in turn activates the aforementioned HPA Axis in order to prepare the body for the perceived threatening situation (Flandreau, Ressler, Owens, & Nemeroff, 2012; Herman & Cullinan, 1997). When the amygdala is overstimulated as a result of a stressful situation, like commuting, the HPA Axis triggers the Sympathetic Nervous System, which activates and sustains this high intensity mode of arousal for too long (Åhs et al., 2009). In this way, the amygdala’s reactivity and vigilance towards detecting stressful situations is one of the crucial determining factors as to whether a commuter will experience chronic forms of stress, leading to dire pathophysiological outcomes (Davis & Whalen, 2001; DeMorrow, 2018). As such, the importance of finding a neurocognitive mechanism which can be used to decrease the amygdala’s reactivity during a commute is essential. A less reactive amygdala would decrease the over-activation of the HPA Axis, mitigating its subsequent negative consequences on commuter health (Delgado et al., 2008). These health negative outcomes demonstrate the importance for Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs), responsible for the issue of public health and commuter transportation, to find and implement an effective method that can help commuters decrease their stress response (Raynault & Christopher, 2013). Mindfulness has been shown to be one such mechanism with the capability of decreasing the amygdala’s reactivity, which, in turn, alleviates commuter stress and its negative outcomes (Hölzel et al., 2010; Taren et al., 2015).
Mindfulness Modulates Stress Response
Mindfulness is a 2,600 year old Buddhist meditative tradition stemming from Northern India (Baumann, 1997). Originally, mindfulness was used as a method to help a practitioner develop self-discipline, cultivate meditative equipoise, and ultimately lead to the culmination of perfect wisdom (Choong, 1999; Samuel, 2015). This wisdom generates a profound meditative insight into the true selfless nature of reality, which allows for total freedom from all forms of suffering, while also attaining a state of embodied peace and loving-kindness towards all beings (Thubten, 2009). Around the midpoint of the 20th century, the practice of mindfulness spread into the western hemisphere, eventually establishing itself in various secular forms (Baumann, 1997). One form was Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), as a secular method using various mindfulness practices for helping individuals alleviate physical pain and psychological stress brought on by various maladies (Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
Although various forms of mindfulness based practices and philosophies exist, mindfulness more generally is defined as a non-judgemental, spacious, relaxed, non-attached, awareness of all the thoughts, feelings, and perceptions experienced in the present moment (Bishop et al., 2004; Kabat‐Zinn, 2003; Ludwig & Kabat-Zinn, 2008). Studies have found that individuals practicing mindfulness are able to decrease feelings of pain, anxiety, various stressors and even increase their immune responses (Brand et al., 2012; Davidson et al., 2003; Lindsay et al., 2018). While commuting through polluted and stressful environments, the ability of mindfulness to buffer against these various stressors and boost the immune system would make it all the more beneficial for commuters. As previously mentioned, a dysregulated HPA Axis response leads to pathological outcomes; however, mindfulness has been shown to decrease cortisol levels and improve HPA Axis regulation (Carlson, Speca, Patel, & Goodey, 2004). This occurs is through the ability of mindfulness to modulate the amygdala’s response through alterations in attentional focus, which in turn decreases the HPA Axis stress response (Taren et al., 2015). On a busy subway train or while stuck in heavy traffic, the ability of a commuter to modulate their amygdala’s response to the stressful situation using their own volition would be an essential health tool. This modulation of the amygdala’s response is brought about by an increase of neural activity in the lateral prefrontal cortex, an area associated with increased cognitive control (Delgado et al., 2008; Farb et al., 2010; Tomasino & Fabbro, 2016). Through the development of attentional capacities and executive functions enhanced through mindfulness, the neural tracks (which form the connections) between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, are modulated to the point where actual neuroplastic alterations (physiological brain changes) are observed in the form of decreased grey matter in the amygdala (Hölzel et al., 2010; Leung et al., 2018). This correlates with decreased subjective feelings of stress and increased emotional regulation (Hölzel et al., 2010; Leung et al., 2018). These alterations in the HPA Axis and amygdala response, via the modulating effects of mindfulness, may in turn allow for a commute that less severely impacts the psychological and physical health of commuters (Taren et al., 2015; Tomasino & Fabbro, 2016).
Applying Mindfulness During Commutes
Practically speaking, how can the theory and research supporting the psychophysiological health benefits of mindfulness be applied to real world commuter settings? Although the following suggestions will not alter the physical situations that commuters find themselves in, they can help alleviate the subjective feelings of stress arising in relation to the situation. While commuting via different means, a commuter can practice mindfulness by following these recommendations:
- If you are on a crowded train or bus and are feeling stressed and uncomfortable, focus your attention on your in-and-out-breaths using the method of mindful breathing. This technique is utilized by becoming conscientious of your breathing. Focus on your breath as you inhale and exhale, feeling the breath flow through your nostrils and throughout your body (Bhikkhu, 1996). Return your attention back to the sensations of the breath using this simple technique every time your mind wanders off onto stressful perceptions, thoughts and feelings (Bhikkhu, 1996). In this way, you may feel more calm, focused, and in less discomfort for the remainder of the commute (Arch & Craske, 2006).
- While facing other passengers who may be belligerent or frightening and whom you may not feel comfortable confronting, become aware of the tension in your body, breath more calmly and relax (Thubten, 2009). Whatever appears before your eyes or is experienced by your senses, maintain a non-judgemental, open, spacious, and accepting awareness of the present moment by allowing all thoughts, feelings and sensations to arise and pass away naturally, as if you are observing a dream (Urgyen, 2000). This will allow you to feel more relaxed, peaceful and less alarmed by the situation, helping to maintain a more balanced psychophysiological state (Taren et al., 2015).
- Traffic and delays are a common occurrence while commuting. When they occur, you can use them as an opportunity to cultivate mindfulness by paying attention to your bodily sensations which are arising as an anchor to the present moment (Kerr, Sacchet, Lazar, Moore, & Jones, 2013). After your mind wanders to thoughts of the past or future (which normally occurs through habituation and lack of mindfulness practice), return your awareness back to the present sensations throughout your body (Ditto, Eclache, & Goldman, 2006). Through focused awareness of the empty nature of bodily sensations, you can begin to relax and release physical tension which is being generated through any habituated stress responses (Choong, 1999; Haase, Stewart et al., 2016). This bodily relaxation through awareness of the present sensations might help decrease your stress levels and facilitate a more adaptive commute (Ditto et al., 2006; Haase, Thom et al., 2016).
- Commuting via airplanes often triggers feelings of fear, anxiety, panic, and physiological stress (McNally & Louro, 1992). In this situation, you can practice mindfulness of thoughts, allowing yourself to become aware of any fearful thoughts while passively observing them and allowing them to naturally pass and subside, similar to the clouds passing by the airplane outside (Urygen, 2000). Through the cultivation of this spacious and open state of mind, any fears and anxieties can begin to dissolve, which in turn may help decrease your stress levels (Greeson & Brantley, 2009; Taren et al., 2015).
- For those commuters who must walk long distances on a daily basis and are exposed to extremes in weather, there is the opportunity to practice mindful walking. To do so, pay full attention to the sensations of walking and the feelings of movement associated with it, including feelings of the wind against your body or the sun on your face (Hanh, 2011). Being fully engaged with the process of walking will put you in touch with the present moment and begin to disengage you from the incessant stream of negative thoughts about the experience which trigger the stress response (Kabat‐Zinn, 2003). By being mindful of your movements rather than being caught up in negative thought patterns, a more peaceful, aware and stress free commute can be facilitated (Hanh, 2011).
Conclusion
Commuters face daily assaults from a litany of environmental, psychological and physiological factors which interact in ways that unfortunately often lead to pathophysiology and psychopathology (Evan, 2003; Ma et al., 2003). Mindfulness practice has been shown through research to act as an effective mechanism for the alleviation and mitigation of stress, as is often encountered by commuters (Brand et al., 2012; Lindsay et al., 2018). Although no known negative side effects exist, the practice is only effective if effectively implemented by the individual, and maintained over time,and not remaining as only an intellectual understanding isolated to the realm of abstract theory (Kabat‐Zinn, 2003). Despite this limitation, the potential for using mindfulness to mitigate stress during commutes is tremendous. If commuters can implement these simple principles, there is likely to be an increase in their executive functioning, enhanced cognitive control over their attention and emotions, along with a decreased stress response (Farb et al., 2010; Tomasino & Fabbro, 2016). Studies thus far have not examined the effects of mindfulness while commuting. The majority of studies either focus exclusively on stress and commuting, or how mindfulness affects stress (Arch & Craske, 2006; Brand et al., 2012; Chillrud et al., 2004; Davidson et al., 2003; Gottholmseder et al., 2009; Karlsson et al., 2005; Lindsay et al., 2018; Martell & Dietz, 1992). Future research may seek to investigate how different forms of mindfulness practice alter the commuter stress response and which methods of mindfulness are most efficacious for different types of commutes. Given that a large majority of individuals across the globe commute on a regular basis, it would be beneficial to investigate how mindfulness can decrease commuter stress, a global public health concern that impacts the lives of millions.
References
Åhs, F., Pissiota, A., Michelgård, Å., Frans, Ö., Furmark, T., Appel, L., & Fredrikson, M. (2009). Disentangling the web of fear: Amygdala reactivity and functional connectivity in spider and snake phobia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 172(2), 103-108.
Arch, J. J., & Craske, M. G. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness: Emotion regulation following a focused breathing induction. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(12), 1849-1858.
Baumann, M. (1997). The dharma has come west: A survey of recent studies and sources. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 4, 194-211.
Bhikkhu, A. B. (1996). Mindfulness with breathing. Boston, MA: Wisdom Publications.
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., … Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230-241.
Brand, S., Holsboer-Trachsler, E., Naranjo, J. R., & Schmidt, S. (2012). Influence of mindfulness practice on cortisol and sleep in long-term and short-term meditators. Neuropsychobiology, 65(3), 109-118.
Carlson, L. E., Speca, M., Patel, K. D., & Goodey, E. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction in relation to quality of life, mood, symptoms of stress and levels of cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) and melatonin in breast and prostate cancer outpatients. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29(4), 448-474.
Chillrud, S. N., Epstein, D., Ross, J. M., Sax, S. N., Pederson, D., Spengler, J. D., & Kinney, P. L. (2004). Elevated airborne exposures of teenagers to manganese, chromium, and iron from steel dustand New York City’s subway system. Environmental Science & Technology, 38(3), 732−737.
Choi, S., Kim, S., Yang, J., Lee, J., Joo, C., & Jung, H. (2014). Real-time measurement of human salivary cortisol for the assessment of psychological stress using a smartphone. Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research, 2, 8-11.
Choong, M. K. (1999). The Notion of Emptiness in Early Buddhism. New Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Davidson, R. J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M., Muller, D., Santorelli, S. F., … Sheridan, J. F. (2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(4), 564-570.
Davis, M., & Whalen, P. (2001). The amygdala: Vigilance and emotion. Molecular Psychiatry, 6(1), 13–34.
Delgado, M. R., Nearing, K. I., LeDoux, J. E., & Phelps, E. A. (2008). Neural circuitry underlying the regulation of conditioned fear and its relation to extinction. Neuron, 59(5), 829-838.
DeMorrow, S. (2018). Role of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis in health and disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(4), 986.
Ditto, B., Eclache, M., & Goldman, N. (2006). Short-term autonomic and cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan meditation. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 32(3), 227-234.
Elhai, J. D., Dvorak, R. D., Levine, J. C., & Hall, B. J. (2017). Problematic smartphone use: A conceptual overview and systematic review of relations with anxiety and depression psychopathology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 251-259.
Farb, N. A. S., Anderson, A. K., Mayberg, H., Bean, J., McKeon, D., & Segal, Z. V. (2010). Minding one’s emotions: Mindfulness training alters the neural expression of sadness. Emotion, 10(1), 25–33.
Flandreau, E. I., Ressler, K. J., Owens, M. J., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2012). Chronic overexpression of corticotropin-releasing factor from the central amygdala produces HPA axis hyperactivity and behavioral anxiety associated with gene-expression changes in the hippocampus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(1), 27-38.
Freeman, J. B., Stolier, R. M., Ingbretsen, Z. A., & Hehman, E. A. (2014). Amygdala responsivity to high-level social information from unseen faces. Journal of Neuroscience, 43(32), 10573-10581.
Gimenez-Nadal, I., & Molina, J. (2019). Daily feelings of US workers and commuting time. Journal of Transport & Health, 12, 21-33.
Gottholmseder, G., Nowotny, K., Pruckner, G. J., & Theurl, E. (2009). Stress perception and commuting. Health Economics, 18(5), 559-576.
Greeson, J., & Brantley, J. (2009) Mindfulness and anxiety disorders: Developing a wise relationship with the inner experience of fear. In F. Didonna (Eds.) Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness. New York: Springer.
Haase, L., Stewart, J. L., Youssef, B., May, A. C., Isakovic, S., Simmons, A. N., … Paulus, M. P. (2016). When the brain does not adequately feel the body: Links between low resilience and interoception. Biological Psychology, 113, 37-45.
Haase, L., Thom, N. J., Shukla, A., Davenport, P. W., Simmons, A. N., Stanley, E. A., …Johnson, D. C. (2016). Mindfulness-based training attenuates insula response to an aversive interoceptive challenge. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11(1), 182–190.
Hanh, T. N. (2011). The long road turns to joy: A guide to walking meditation. Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press.
Herman, J. P., & Cullinan, W. E. (1997). Neurocircuitry of stress: Central control of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenocortical axis. Trends in Neurosciences, 20(2), 78-84.
Hölzel, B. K., Carmody, J., Evans, K. C., Hoge, E. A., Dusek, J. A., Morgan, L.,…Lazar, S. W. (2010). Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5(1), 11-7.
Hu, Y., Long, X., Lyu, H., Zhou, Y., & Chen, J. (2017). Alterations in white matter integrity in young adults with smartphone dependence. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11(532), 1-10.
Johansson, A., Nordin, S., Heiden, M., & Sandström, M. (2010). Symptoms, personality traits, and stress in people with mobile phone-related symptoms and electromagnetic hypersensitivity. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 68(1), 37-45.
Joseph, D. N., & Whirledge, S. (2018). Stress and the HPA axis: Balancing homeostasis and fertility. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(4), 986.
Kabat‐Zinn, J. (2003), Mindfulness‐based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144-156.
Karlsson, H. L., Nilsson, L., & Möller, L. (2005). Subway particles are more genotoxic than street particles and induce oxidative stress in cultured human lung cells. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 18(1), 19-23.
Kerr, C. E., Sacchet, M. D., Lazar, S. W., Moore, C. I., & Jones, S. R. (2013). Mindfulness starts with the body: Somatosensory attention and top-down modulation of cortical alpha rhythms in mindfulness meditation. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7(12), 1-15.
Leonard, B. E. (2006). HPA and immune axes in stress: Involvement of the serotonergic system. Neuroimmunomodulation, 13(5-6), 268-276.
Leung, M., Lau, W. K., Chan, C. C., Wong, S. S., Fung, A. L., & Lee, T. M. (2018). Meditation-induced neuroplastic changes in amygdala activity during negative affective processing. Social Neuroscience, 13(3), 277-288.
Levine, A., Zagoory-Sharon, O., Feldman, R., Lewis, J. G., & Weller, A. (2007). Measuring cortisol in human psychobiological studies. Physiology & Behavior, 90(1), 43-53.
Lindsay, E. K., Young, S., Smyth, J. M., Brown, K.W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Acceptance lowers stress reactivity: Dismantling mindfulness training in a randomized controlled trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 87, 63–73.
Ludwig, D. S., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (2008). Mindfulness in medicine. Journal of the American Medical Association, 300(11), 1350–1352.
Ma, J., Li, C., Kwan, M. P., & Chai, Y. (2003). A multilevel analysis of perceived noise pollution, geographic contexts and mental health in Beijing. Journal of Urban Health, 80(4), 536-55.
Malpas, S. C. (2010). Sympathetic nervous system overactivity and its role in the development of cardiovascular disease. Physiological Reviews, 90(2), 513-557.
Martell, D. A., & Dietz, P. E. (1992). Mentally disordered offenders who push or attempt to push victims onto subway tracks in New York City. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49(6), 472–475.
McCorry, L. M. (2007). Physiology of the autonomic nervous system. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 71(4), 1-11.
McEwen, B. S., & Stellar, E. (1993). Stress and the individual: Mechanisms leading to disease. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153(18), 2093–2101.
McNally, R. J., & Louro, C. E. (1992). Fear of flying in agoraphobia and simple phobia: Distinguishing features. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 6(4), 319-324.
Morgane, P. J. (2005). A review of systems and networks of the limbic forebrain/limbic midbrain. Progress in Neurobiology, 75(2), 143–160.
Novaco, R. W., Stokols, D., & Milanesi, L. (1990). Objective and subjective dimensions of travel impedance as determinants of commuting stress. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(2), 231-257.
Raynault, E., & Christopher, E. (2013). How does transportation affect public health? Public Roads, 76(6), (FHWA-HRT-13-004).
Samuel, G. (2015). The contemporary mindfulness movement and the question of nonself. Transcultural Psychiatry, 52(4), 485–500.
Sansone, R. A., & Sansone, L. A. (2013). Cell phones: The psychosocial risks. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 10(1), 33-37.
Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. U. (2000). How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21(1), 55-89.
Taren, A. A., Gianaros, P. J., Greco, C. M., Lindsay, E. K., Fairgrieve, A., Brown, K. W., & Bursley, J. K. (2015). Mindfulness meditation training alters stress-related amygdala resting state functional connectivity: A randomized controlled trial. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(12), 1758-1768.
Thomée, S. (2018). Mobile phone use and mental health. A review of the research that takes a psychological perspective on exposure. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(12), 1-25.
Thubten, A. (2009). No self, no problem. Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications.
Tomasino, B., & Fabbro, F. (2016). Increases in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and decreases the rostral prefrontal cortex activation after-8 weeks of focused attention based mindfulness meditation. Brain and Cognition, 102(46), 46-54.
Urgyen, T. (2000). As it is Vol 2. Kotewall, Hong Kong: Rangjung Yeshe Publications.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics. (2018). Transportation Statistics Annual Report 2018 (Washington, DC: 2018). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.21949/1502596
Wener, R., Evans, G. W., & Boately, P. (2005). Commuting stress: Psychophysiological effects of a trip and spillover into the workplace. Transportation Research Record, 1924(1), 112–117.
Click here to return to the Fall 2019 Issue Contents page.