Applied Psychology OPUS

Self-Defense Empowerment Programs and Discrimination Stress

Sanjidah T. Chowdhury

The three and half million Muslim American population includes individuals of diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds, with a significant portion being immigrants from regions across the globe, such as South Asia, Middle East, and North Africa (Mohamed & Diamant 2019; Pew Research Center, 2015a, 2017, 2018). Muslims hold a religious minority status in the United States, which is predominantly Christian (Pew Research Center, 2015b), and are often the target of hate-based violence, which includes hate crimes and discrimination through the use of violence due to their religious, cultural, and social background (Amnesty International, n.d.; Pew Research Center, 2018; The United States Department of Justice, n.d.). Following the terrorist attacks on 9/11, hate crimes increased against Muslim Americans; there was an additonal increase in hate crimes after the 2016 presidential election, due to the discriminatory language perpetuated by the media and government about Muslims (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2000, 2001, 2016; Smith, 2013). In addition to the high levels of hate-based violence, the Trump Administration brought on an onslaught of institutionalized discriminatory policies, such as the immigration ban, which forbade individuals from nine Muslim majority countries to come to the United States (ACLU Washington, 2018). These events affected the Muslim population differently (Moagahed & Chouhoud, 2017; Pew Research Center, 2018). In particular, Muslim women in the United States face institutional discrimination through implementation of policies and practices targeting their religious expression as a woman (Demby, 2015). For instance, an example of gender discrimination includes young Muslim women who are rejected from jobs because wearing a hijab opposes workplace dress codes (Demby, 2015).

Muslim American women are not only targets of hate-based violence, but of gender-based violence, as well (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2000, 2001, 2016; Pew Research Center, 2017). Gender-based violence encompasses physical and psychological violence, which is the result of two societal structures: (1) the unequal power relationships between men and women, where females are the predominant target; and (2) the binary normative role expectations, commonly understood as gender stereotypes, such as men are the financial provider, whereas women are the caretakers (World Health Organization, 2017). Due to the intersection of gender and religious identity, Muslim American women face more experiences of hate attacks, are more likely to fear for their safety, and report greater religious discrimination in comparison to Muslim American men (Moagahed & Chouhoud, 2017; Pew Research Center, 2017) and hijab wearing women face higher levels of threat than non-hijab wearers (Pew Research Center, 2017). Notably, one in five Muslim American women seek the assistance of mental health professionals in order to cope with the stress and anxiety of the current political climate (Mogahed & Chouhoud, 2017). 

In fact, being under constant threat due to minority status can cause high levels of stress, a phenomenon commonly labeled as discrimination stress (American Psychological Association, n.d.). However, to date, research has not explored how interventions might support the mental health of Muslim Americans; instead, the focus of interventions has been on physical health, for example, adapting the space in the mosque to increase physical activity, or on Muslim women outside of the United States (see, for example, Banerjee et al., 2017; Guerin, Diiriye, Corrigan, & Guerin, 2003; Kalter-Leibovici et al., 2010). Despite the lack of research regarding discrimination stress experienced by Muslim American women, there are a number of community-oriented grassroots organizations in the United States – like Malikah – that seek to provide protective spaces to help Muslim American women cope with discrimination through programming and services with the goal of increasing feelings of empowerment (Malikah, 2018). Although these organizations utilize empowerments programs, these programs have not been investigated to see whether it is effective among the Muslim American women population. 

Women Empowerment Programs

The Empowerment Program Model is understood as a redefining of power relations through addressing and changing unequal power dynamics (Rappaport, 1984; Zimmerman, 1990). This model is utilized in a community-level setting to empower marginalized and vulnerable groups to increase collective power, knowledge, skills, self-efficacy, and control (Ackerly, 1995; Cattaneo & Goodman, 2015, Kim, Crutchfield, Williams, & Hepler, 1998; Zimmerman, 1990). The mechanisms underlying the model focus on building critical consciousness, i.e., the ability to understand the structural and group contexts that impact groups and individuals’ lives, build community support, and serve as a resource to aid in collective action (Rappaport, 1984; Zimmerman, 1990). At the same time, building community support is important, as it provides individuals in the community the opportunity to work together and help each other to overcome structural challenges (Rappaport, 1984; Zimmerman, 1990). 

This model has been the framework for interventions for various populations to address their needs such as: substance abuse prevention for adolescents, coping strategies for domestic violence survivors, and self-management skills for diabetes patients (Arnold, Butler, Anderson, Funnell, & Feste, 1995; Kasturirangan, 2008; Kim et al., 1998). Ultimately, the goal of women empowerment programs is to work to adjust the unequal gender power dynamic (Cattaneo & Goodman, 2015). For women in Muslim majority, non-Western countries, empowerment programs are utilized to increase financial independence to improve living conditions for women (Ackerly, 1995; Steele, Amin, & Naved, 1998). These microfinance and loan borrowing programs provide education on financial resources and increase feelings of empowerment and financial involvement (Ackerly, 1995; Steele et al., 1998). Although it is evident that there is research on empowerment programs for Muslim women, it has primarily focused on financial empowerment (Ackerly, 1995; Steele et al., 1998). Moreover, there is a lack of research on the use of empowerment programs for Muslim American women in the United States to combat discrimination.

Feminist Self-Defense Empowerment Programs

In addition to the education-focused Empowerment Program Model, self-defense empowerment programs have emerged in the United States, in hopes of reducing the incidences of assault through national conversations about gender-based violence (Rape, Abuse, & Incest National Network, n.d.; Starheim, 2019). Self-defense is commonly understood as a tool for protection from an attack in a physical sense, but the concept also encompasses psychological protection, given that the program model focuses on helping women become physically and mentally prepared for potential attacks (Cummings, 1992; Hollander, 2004; Searles & Follansbee, 1984; Weitlauf, Smith, & Cervone, 2000). The primary goal is to educate participants about the ways to identify high-risk situations, risk of sexual assault, and their legal rights if assaulted (Cummings, 1992; Gidycz & Dardis, 2014). The physical activity of self-defense encourages women to practice self-protective strategies in a controlled program setting with trained leaders through role-play attack scenarios (Cummings, 1992; Gidycz & Dardis, 2014; Ozer & Bandura, 1990).

Research has demonstrated that self defense empowerment programs have positively impacted participants’ behavioral and psychological outcomes, such as increased physical competence and decreased avoidant behavior (Searles & Follansbee, 1984; Weitlauf et al., 2000). Women who participate in self-defense programs are able to skillfully utilize self-defense techniques (i.e., physical competence) and no longer use avoidant behaviors to feel safe in their daily lives, demonstrating increased assertiveness and self-efficacy and decreased fear of sexual assault (Hollander, 2004; Ozer & Bandura, 1990; Weitlauf et al., 2000). 

Proposed Study

The Empowerment Program Model has been shown to effectively empower marginalized and vulnerable populations and help them overcome structural challenges. However, research on empowerment programs for Muslim women is limited, and has focused on non-Western contexts (Ackerly, 1995; Steele et al., 1998). Similarly, feminist self-defense programs have also demonstrated a positive impact among participants, such as decreased avoidant behaviors and increased physical competence (Searles & Follansbee, 1984; Weitlauf et al., 2000). To date, however, feminist empowerment programs have not focused specifically on Muslim American women, who experience additional threats to their identity from various systems in society (e.g., Muslim American women targets of governmental policy; ACLU Washington, 2018). Yet, examining the potential benefits empowerment programs might have for Muslim American women is needed, as these programs can reduce the discrimination stress they experience. Recently, in response to the challenges Muslim American women face, Malikah, a grassroots movement, has utilized the Self-Defense Program Model and incorporated additional principles of empowerment programming to help Muslim women cope with their life stressors (Malikah, 2018). Malikah is focused on community-building by providing marginalized women with the tools and education to feel empowered, through a variety of capacities like financial literacy, self-defense, and organizing (Malikah, 2018). The program, however, has not been studied empirically to see if it is effective in reducing the discrimination stress (i.e, gender-based, hate-based, and institutional-based violence) Muslim American women experience in the United States. Thus, through a quantitative approach, the proposed study seeks to work in collaboration with Malikah to investigate the question: To what extent does a self-defense empowerment program impact Muslim American women’s discrimination stress levels? 

Proposed Method

Participants 

Participants will be recruited through the active chapters of Malikah in Dallas and New York City. The goal will be to recruit a total of 400 individuals ranging from the age of 18 to 25, who identify as a Muslim American born women to participate in a 2-week summer intensive retreat. Within each region (i.e., New York City and Dallas), 100 participants will be randomly assigned to a discussion-based program and 100 will be randomly assigned to a self-defense-based program. 

Measures

In order to understand intragroup differences in the population of interest, demographic information will be collected along with the participant’s attendance in the intervention program. In addition to background surveys, a modified scale of discrimination stress will be administered. 

Demographic questionnaire. Participants will complete an online questionnaire regarding their age (in years), ethnicity, place of birth, whether they currently wear a hijab and if so, for how many years have they have worn it, level of religious identification, and their generational status, as well as prior participation in other empowerment or self-defense programs. In addition, participants will be asked to provide their regional locations (i.e., Dallas vs New York City) and their contact information. 

Participation in empowerment program. Participants will only get credit for having participated in their assigned intervention program if they attended at least 10 of the 14 days of the allotted intervention. This will ensure that the participant experienced the majority of the lessons and practice sessions taught in the intervention.

Discrimination stress. Discrimination stress for the purpose of this proposal refers to the psychological fear of being discriminated against on the basis of religious and gender. Due to the lack of standardized scales applicable to the population of interest, two scales will be adapted. The first scale, developed by Flores et al., (2008), explores the experiences of perceived discrimination, as well as mental and physical health. The adapted scale for discrimination stress will allow for an understanding of discriminatory experiences (e.g., treated unfairly on the basis of race, gender or religion and will have items adapted to include experiences of religious persecution and sexism (See Appendix A; Flores et al., 2008). An adaptation of the Violence Sensitivity Scale (Davey, Forster, & Mayhew, 1993a) will be also be used to measure discrimination stress. This scale was originally used to understand the fear participants associate with various violent events (e.g., probability of being attacked by a partner), and will be adapted to include experiences of violence related to the Muslim American women experience (e.g., having a hijab removed during attack; see Appendix B) which contributes to future psychological fear of being discrimination against on the basis of religion and gender.     

Procedure 

All participants will first participate in an orientation to the program, at which time they will sign consent forms, meet program leaders, and complete baseline questionnaires. They will then be randomly assigned to one of two programs, a discussion-based program or a self-defense program. Both the curriculum and self-defense programs plan are already created and in use by Malikah (see Appendix C for a sample program session). The program will be administered as a two-week intensive day retreat (9 am-4 pm; 10 minutes breaks every hour and lunch provided). The program will consist of 84 sessions in total, with six 1-hour sessions each day. Each intervention program will be administered by a group of four trained Malikah’s women staff, whose ages range from 18 to 25 years. 

Discussion-based program. The participants who are randomly assigned to the discussion-based program will participate in Amin, which means safe and secure in Arabic. This intervention program will be considered as the control group, and will focus on topics of gender-based violence, mental well-being, media representation of body image, oppression, and discrimination through discussion and reflections (see Appendix C). The curriculum will follow the Empowerment Model by first providing education on the topics, guiding participants to share their knowledge and experiences, and then providing time for group and self-reflection. Intervention leaders facilitating these groups will define terminology (e.g., oppression) and present theoretical frameworks to understand concepts (e.g., cycle of oppression, anti-oppression framework and levels of oppression; see Appendix C). This discussion-based curriculum will promote participants’ critical consciousness of the power systems that impact their social identities (Zimmerman, 1990). 

Self-defense program. The second intervention program, the self-defense curriculum, will incorporate two activity components: discussion and physical activity. The discussions will  focus on three areas: (1) providing education on purposes of self-defense and rights during and after attack, (2) giving participants the opportunity to speak about their thoughts and feelings of situations they have been in, and (3) encouraging participants to react to hypothetical scenarios posed to them. Additionally, the discussions will provide time for the participants to verbally and mentally process the information provided in a safe space. The second activity component, physical activity, will focus on practicing key self-defense techniques (e.g., pressure points, basic strikes) that the organization founder developed from her martial arts training (Malikah, 2018). The self-defense curriculum will consist of trained instructors modeling movements to utilize for protection, with participants subsequently practicing the moves themselves (with padded shields and floor mats to reduce the risk of injury; see Appendix C). Moreover, the curriculum will allow participants to build their physical competence and increase psychological mindset of the power the individuals possess (Hollander, 2004; Ozer & Bandura, 1990). 

Participants will complete the two scales used to assess discrimination stress at three times: (1) at orientation, before the intervention begins, (2) immediately after, and (3) six months following the end of intervention. The first time-point serves as a baseline measure to ensure that there are no between-group differences at the start of the intervention. Immediately after the intervention, the goal will be to see if discrimination stress decreased since orientation, which would indicate that participants have less psychological fear of being discriminated against on the basis of their religion and gender. Assessing discrimination stress six months after the intervention will highlight whether the intervention was effective and had a lasting impact on  the participants. Following the six-month assessment, participants will be debriefed and provided with information on and potential benefits of both programs, and those not in the self-defense program will be provided an opportunity to receive self-defense training.

Data Analytic Plan

In order to investigate the proposed research question, a 2×2 between-group experimental time series design is proposed. The scores from both scales (see Appendix A and B) will be averaged together to get the mean discrimination stress of each of the participants. A series of two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be conducted to determine if there is a difference in discrimination stress for participants in discussion-based program or the self-defense program immediatley after the intervention and 6-months later, controlling for scores at the start of the intervention. Output will be assessed for two main effects. If there is a significant main effect for program type, then it can be concluded that there is a difference in the mean discrimination stress between the two different program types (discussion-based and self-defense).

Potential Implications

The current proposal seeks to extend the literature on the effectiveness of self-defense and empowerment models for supporting Muslim American women, a population facing more than one threat to their identity. In addition, the proposal seeks to explore how the models compare, and if is more effective model to combine an explicit empowerment programming with the self-defense model. Findings have the potential to highlight how the Malikah intervention can provide Muslim American women with effective strategies to cope with discrimination stress, and will allow for a more holistic exploration of the Muslim American women population: what challenges they face, ways to cope, and what future research should build upon.

 

References

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 Arnold, M. S., Butler, P. M., Anderson, R. M., Funnell, M. M., & Feste, C. (1995). Guidelines for facilitating a patient empowerment program. The Diabetes Educator, 21(4), 308-312. 

Banerjee, A. T., Landry, M., Zawi, M., Childerhose, D., Stephens, N., Shafique, A., & Price, J. (2017). A pilot examination of a mosque-based physical activity intervention for South Asian Muslim women in Ontario, Canada. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 19(2), 349-357.

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Cummings, N. (1992). Self-Defense training for college women. Journal of American College Health, 40(4), 183-188.

Davey, G. C., Forster, L., & Mayhew, G. (1993a). Familial resemblances in disgust sensitivity and animal phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31(1), 41-50. 

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Federal Bureau of Investigations, Uniform Crime Reporting (2016). Hate crime statistics 2016. Retrieved from https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2016/topic-pages/victims.pdf

Flores, E., Tschann, J. M., Dimas, J. M., Bachen, E. A., Pasch, L. A., & de Groat, C. L. (2008). Discrimination Stress Scale [Database record]. Retrieved from PsycTESTS. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/t03611-000

Gidycz, C. A. & Dardis, C. M. (2014). Feminist self-defense and resistance training for college students: A critical review and recommendations for the future. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(4), 322–333. 

Guerin, P. B., Diiriye, R. O., Corrigan, C., & Guerin, B. (2003). Physical activity programs for refugee Somali women: Working out in a new country. Women & Health, 38(1), 83-99.

Hollander, J. A. (2004). “I can take care of myself”: The impact of self-defense training on women’s lives. Violence against Women, 10(3), 205-235. 

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Appendix A

Adapted Discrimination Stress Scale 

These questions are about experiences that people of Muslim identity sometimes have in this country (response options: 0=never, 1=sometimes, 2=often, 3=very often).

  1. Do you currently feel you are treated rudely or unfairly because of your race, ethnicity, or religion?
  2. Do you currently feel you are discriminated against because of your race, ethnicity, or religion?
  3. Do you currently feel others lack respect for you because of your race, ethnicity, or religion?
  4. Do you currently feel you have to prove your abilities to others because of your race, ethnicity, or religion?
  5. Do you currently feel racism is a problem in your life?
  6. Do you currently feel islamophobia is a problem in your life? 
  7. Do you currently feel sexism is a problem in your life? 
  8. Do you currently find it difficult to find work you want because of your race, ethnicity, or religion?
  9. Do you currently feel people dislike you because of your race, ethnicity, or religion?
  10. Do you currently feel you have friends that are treated badly because of their race, ethnicity, or religion?
  11. Do you currently feel you have more barriers to overcome than most people because of your race, ethnicity, or religion?
  12. Do you currently feel rejected by others due to your race, ethnicity, or religion?
  13. Do you currently feel your race, ethnicity, or religion is a limitation when looking for a job?
  14. Do you currently feel people seem to have stereotypes about your race, ethnicity, or religious group?
  1. Do you currently feel people try to stop you from succeeding because of your race, ethnicity, or religion?
  2. Do you currently feel you do not get as much recognition as you deserve for the work you do, just because of your race, ethnicity, or religion?

 

Appendix B

Adapted Violence Sensitivity Scale 

Subjects were asked to rate on a 5-point scale (from 0=not at all to 4=very much) how frightened they were of the events happening to them.

  1. Being knocked down by a drunk driver
  2. Being mugged and robbed in the street
  3. Being attacked in your own home by burglars
  4. Being caught in a terrorist bomb attack
  5. Getting caught up in a riot while innocently walking in the street
  6. Being bullied
  7. Being attacked by football hooligans
  8. Being the victim of an unprovoked attack by drunks
  9. Being sexually molested or raped
  10. Being physically attacked by spouse/boyfriend/girlfriend/family member
  11. Being physically attacked during an argument
  12. Being physically attacked by a weapon
  13. Getting hijab taken off 

 

Appendix C

Sample curriculum: Empowerment program discussion/ activities

Discussing issues faced by Muslim Women in America (Time: 30 minutes):

  • After defining Imperialism, explore how these issues and histories impact Muslim women in the United States.
  • In a big group discussion allow girls to reflect on various situations that they face as Muslim women in America.
  • Debrief/Purpose: This is an overview discussion on issues that particularly face Muslim Women in the West.  It allows girls to address more nuanced issues of race and Islamophobia particularly pertaining to their identities. You may also want to bring up a discussion on the burqa/hijab bans and find information on these online. Where do stereotypes around women come from?  Why do we focus so much on breaking stereotypes rather than actually addressing female oppression in the Muslim world. It does exist. 

Are Muslim Women Oppressed? (Time: 20 minutes)

  • With everything we hear in the media and see in our communities, are Muslim women oppressed?
  • Where do you think this oppression comes from?
  • Debrief/Purpose: Islamically, women have rights. However, many women are not aware of them and are more knowledgeable of a manipulated version of Islam. What can we do to better equip ourselves with this knowledge? How can we educate others? Why are women oppressed when we do have these rights?

Female Empowerment and Islam (Time: 30 minutes)

  • What does Islam say about female empowerment? What can we take from this?
  • Debrief/Purpose: These articles are pretty powerful in that they convey a very unique message for female empowerment and male identity. Girls can either disagree or agree with these ideas. However, this is a good place for more complex discussions about the issues that these articles try to address.

Evaluation: Roses & Thorns: 

Anti-Oppression in Combating Gender Based Violence 

  • Goals: To discuss gender based issues from anti-oppression lens and understand why this framework is necessary to liberate us from all forms of oppression 
  • Activity One: Why Anti-Oppression? (10 minutes)
  • Activity Two: Oppression (20 minutes)

Self Defense Sample Curriculum: Basic Strikes and Kicks 

  • Introduction to Self-defense (10 minutes).
  • Pressure Points (5 minutes): 
  • Basic Strikes (30 minutes): 
    • Basic defensive posture:
      • Body Posture
      • Fighting Stance
    • Basic Strikes should be demonstrated and then practiced* (With Fighting Stance):
      • Four-fingered strike (jab) to eyes (if super serious) or nose – demonstrate and practice at least ten times with each hand
      • Double Strike: (Strike with dominant hand, bring back, then follow with strike from other hand) Close fisted
  • Kicks (30 minutes):
    • Knee Kick
    • Sidekick
    • Roundhouse Kick
  • Defense Against Grabs (30 minutes):
    • Grab #1: What to do when being grabbed from the front, when the hand your attacker is using is on the same side as the hand he is grabbing.
    • Grab #2: What to do when being grabbed from the front, both hands
    • Grab #3: What to do when being grabbed from the wrist 
    • Hijab Grab

 

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