Jiandu
By Han Zheng
After Chengdufu, Tibet, Jiandu was described in the Description of the World, which the itinerary here needed to be questioned for Jiandu, the present-day Xichang in Sichuan Province, was much more closer to Chengdufu. As mentioned in the footnote, “The Mongols invaded and conquered it in 1272–1274, establishing it as an administrative unit of Yunnan Province (Haw 2006, 99–100).” Therefore, to examine Marco Polo’s Jiandu, we can use the sources from Yunnan Province in the Yuan Dynasty, Xichang’s history, specific from Yuan Dynasty and Liangshan’s history as well.
Present day, Xichang (西昌) is the seat of Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture in southeast sichuan province, in the Anning river valley. According to Yuanshi, in 1275, it was given the name of “Jianchanglu”(建昌路), under the “luoluosixuanweisi”（罗罗斯宣慰司）, which was the Liangshan called at that time. It was important as the central transport connection to Chengdufu, at the body of Yunnan province. Hence, I believe it is significant to examine his account of Jiandu, as it would be a passage city that he must travel by when going from Chengdufu to Dali Kingdom.
Summary of Jiandu in the Description of the World:
- A lake full of pearls and good fish
- A mountain with turquoise
- A custom of women: the local bestowed women to the coming foreigners
- Money: salt currency in exchange for gold
- Animals that make musk
- Diverse animals and plant
- Ginger and cinnamon
- Travel for 10 days to the Brius River, where the province of Jiandu comes to an end; full of golden dust
(Qionghai)
Firstly, the lake mentioned by Marco Polo could be verified as Qionghai (邛海), today as the second largest lake in Sichuan Province. From the Han dynasty, there were records about this lake as Qiongdi in Hanshu and Hou Hanshu. From a Huayangguozhi 《华阳国志》卷四南中志, a book that record the history, geography and culture of southwest China in East Jin Dynasty, there was a saying about the Lake: “expanding to about 20 li, deep as more than hundreds zhang, full of big fishes.” This corresponds to Marco Polo’s account about the lake with good fishes. However, whether it was full of pearls could not be verified as there are no other sources mentioning the pearls like Marco Polo. In the book of Marco Polo by Yule, he added a note there saying that “Chinese authorities quoted by Ritter mention mother-o’-pearl as a product of Lithang, speak of turquoises as found in Djaya to the west of Bathang. (Ritter, IV. 235-236.) Neither of these places is, however, within the tract which we believe to be Caindu. Amyot states that pearls are found in a certain river of Yun-nan. (See Trans.R.A.Soc.II. 91.)” However, due to the fact that the description of the world was written long after Marco Polo went back to Venice and not by himself, the misrepresentation of the content and some mistaken details could exist while not invalidating his travel to Jiandu.
Secondly, he spent time discussing a treatment for the women by their husbands when the foreigners came here. They sent their wives to the foreigners and cater to everything they want. The author stressed that “ this is done throughout this province(p.103).” As the footnote suggests, “the tone is more judgmental here than in §115 on Tibet, perhaps because in the first case the women in question were unmarried, whereas here it is husbands urging strangers to sleep with their own wives”. Why would make up the story if it’s not really the custom of the local? The notes by Yule mentioned that there were parallel customs in many other regions and Marco Polo has already mentioned in chapter one in describing the Alamut, a country where the Old Man of the Mountain used to live. “Muhammad had told his Saracens that those who went to paradise would find beautiful women—as many as they could want—and that they would find there rivers of wine, milk, honey, and water.” “The ladies and damsels stayed with them the whole time, playing instruments, singing, making merry, and doing whatever the youths wished.(p.34)” Parallel stories was told to Bernier by an old Kashmiri, in the story of two remote districts of the Himalaya. Even though the local lacks the records of such custom, it has some similarities with the Walking Marriage of Mosuo people from the areas of Yunnan. For example, when the man and the women were dating in the women’s room, they would hang the hat outside the room, to avoid others bothering them. In the Description of the world, Marco mentioned that “The foreigner, who is in the house, makes a sign to show he is within: for he hangs his cape or other sign, signaling that he is inside. As long as the wretch sees this sign on his house, [he] does not return at all (p. 103)”. We could not decide whether this loose correspondence would be contingency or not, but even if there might be mistakes, there was no need for making up this custom if it was not there.
Well Salt
Thirdly, the money, the salt and its exchange for gold was described in the book. A half pound of salt worthed a saggio of pure gold. From the West Han dynasty, Jiandu had already been extracting and making salt with the technology of Well Salt. According to a research of Well Salt in the Yuan Dynasty by Huli from Jinan University, the major spatial distribution of the salt producing area were the Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in the Yuan Dynasty. The Salt production has reached its peak in Song Dynasty in Sichuan Province. In 1278, it was recovered by the Yuan government after the conquest of Qubilai. Since it was the need for everyone but not accessible for everyone, it has always been a special form of money. As recorded by Dayuanyitongzhi, “cattles, sheep, salt, horses, furs, served monetary functions.” The importance of salt for monetary trade allied with Jiandu’s unique status in salt production. In the notes of Yule, he introduced the detailed process of salt making and the prevalence of salt currency with the support of other sources, which was much more complicated than Marco Polo described in the book.
(Cassia)
Last but not least, the clove that Marco Polo mentioned, was pointed out as cassia buds in the notes of Yule. He suggested that even why Marco Polo called it cloves was not clear, it could be cassia buds which looked like cloves but are shorter, lighter in colour, and not angular. “The cinnamon, mentioned in the next lines as abundantly produced in the same region, was no doubt one of the inferior sorts, called cassia-bark.（Yule Notes5, Chapter 7)” The cassia grew in the southern part of China, especially in Yunnan. It did have some resemblance with the clove. In the 2nd edition of the book, Yule confirmed the that according to Baron Richthofen, cassia is produced in the whole length of the valley of Jiandu, and what marco polo described was actually Guihua from Yunnan, Osmanthus yunnanensis, a tree ‘with leaves like the laurel, and with a small white flower, like the clove’.
To conclude, with the help of the notes by Yule and the chinese history records about the four elements that Marco Polo mentioned, considering the importance on the itinerary of his travel, the Polo could have been in Jiandu and his account were mostly reliable when some details are not accurate. Also, it would be hard for him to use other resources to make up his account as Jiandu had relatively scarce records about the things he mentioned. It would more likely be true that the Polos did travel by Jiandu when going south.
Yunnan Guihua: Osmanthus yunnanensis
Footnotes
1. 元世祖至元十二年（1275）置建昌路，以罗罗斯宣慰司总之，隶四川行省，不久改隶云南。罗罗斯宣慰司，又称罗罗斯宣慰司兼管军民万户府，即《元史》卷六十一“罗罗蒙庆等处宣慰司都元帅府”，元朝在今四川凉山、攀枝花地区设立的机构，在云南等处行中书省之下，路、州之上。罗罗蒙庆等处宣慰司都元帅府，治所在建昌路（治今四川省西昌市），属云南等处行中书省。分管云南等处行中书省北部五路军民政务。辖境相当今四川省凉山彝族自治州。设置宣慰使三人，同知、副使各一人。宣慰使为蒙古贵族，副使一下官员由当地少数民族首领担任。
2. 罗罗斯（又作鲁鲁厮，即今四川凉山州地区）原为大理国辖区，蒙古军入云南后派兵攻占，在今西昌设置罗罗斯宣慰司都元帅府，云南行省建立后仍管辖其地。罗罗斯为云南腹地通往成都的交通要冲，蒙古军很重视控制这一地区。
3.《华阳国志》“邛都县（今西昌）东南数里有邛河，纵广二十里，深百余丈，多大鱼，长一二丈，头特大，遥视如戴铁釜然。”
4. Bernier, François. A french traveller who wrote ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ after traveling to India in 1656-1668.
5.《元一统志卷七 云南各路行中书省·建昌路》：牛羊盐马毡布，通商货殖。
Resources:
徐铭, 元代凉山彝族地区的行政与经济,
《元史·地理志》
李京 ,《云南志略 · 诸夷风俗》
Haw, Stephen G. 2006. Marco Polo’s China: A Venetian in the Realm of Khubilai Khan. Routledge Studies in the Early History of Asia. London: Routledge.
https://www.sohu.com/a/376173729_100188602
《南中志》
http://reader.epubee.com/books/mobile/c1/c1222911cf169d3132620461a2b7fb6c/text00007.html
元一统志
Huli, Research on the Well salt of the Yuan Dynasty