Is Marco Polo’s Account of Zardandan Reliable?
By Daniel
From 1260 to 1294 CE, Qubilai’s rule provided China with peace, economic prosperity to some degree, and political unity after the division of Southern Song and Jin[1][2]. Zardandan benefited from ruling strategies of setting up local officials. Under this larger umbrella of stability, the Zardandan region was affected by the 4 conquests Yuan had on Burma[3]. Zardandan was a tribe in Yongchang province[4][5]. The author of The Description of the World used the name Zardandan, one of the tribes in this region, to refer to the entire province of Yongchang. Zardandan is the exact persian translation of “金齿” (gold teeth) from Chinese, presumably originated from the custom of their people having gold case around the teeth[6]. This research focuses on the reliability of the account on Zardandan in The Description of the World. The three main topics are the location of Zardandan, its name, and its customs.
DW does not provide a specific location of Zardandan. It only says that Zardandan is found “When one leaves Qarajang and went west for five days” and that the capital of Zardandan is Vocian[7]. Interestingly, Rashid al-Din inaccurately placed Zardandan in the Northwest of Northern China[8]. The Chinese source Man shu 蛮书 reliably locates Zardandan, which is referred as 金齿蛮 (Barbarians ‘Gold Teeth’), in Yongchang and Kainan (永昌和开南) region[9]. This region is modern day western Yunnan province in Southern part of China. Marco Polo’s account in DW[10], though limited and insufficient, is accurate in placing Zardandan next to Qarajang. Though Zardandan is included in the chapter on Cathay, a name for Northern China known to Europeans, Zardandan is in fact in Southern China, very close to Burma. The Chinese academic consensus is that the tribes in this region belong to the same ethnic group. There is a hypothesis that Barbarian Gold Teeth migrated from Irrawaddy River in Burma[11].
The Persian name Zardandan is an accurate representation of the original, but it raises questions on the information sources used by Marco Polo. In The Book of Marco Polo, Henry Yule praised the accuracy of this represented name, saying “there can be no better instance of the accuracy with which Polo is generally found to have represented oriental names, when we recover his real representation of them, than this name Zardandan”[12]. The “represented oriental name” is the Persian word Zardandan, and the “real representation” is 金齿, Gold Teeth. We discover that the Persian name Zardandan is the literal translation of 金齿, showing remarkable accuracy Yule describes. The name of Zardandan only reappeared as the author’s intention after several confusing miswriting in versions of DW throughout history[13]. While the “represented oriental name” is accurate, the question arises on why using Persian name instead of Mongolian name? The first explanation to this question is his familiarity to Persian compared to Mongolian. Persian was more commonly used than Mongolian, which only the elites know how to write. His familiarity in Persian contributed to his understanding and recording the areas in Persian. The alternative explanation raised by Herbert Franke and Frances Wood is that he based his account on Persian sources and might have never been to China[14][15]. These doubts cannot shake the written record in Yuan Shi on Lady Kokecin episode, which is described in DW, that proved Marco Polo’s travel to China. While the doubts are useful that they question the information source of Marco Polo. It takes further research to know what his sources are and whether they are reliable.
The prominent custom of Zardandan described in DW is the use of gold teeth. DW describes that “each tooth is covered in gold; for they make a cast of gold, made in the manner of one’s tooth, and cover the tooth underneath with this above”[16]. The use of gold teeth is verified in Man shu 蛮书, which states that “Gold Teeth people use gold pieces to cover their teeth”[17]. Rashid al-Din again verifies the use of gold teeth by saying “Zardandan, (who are) so called because these people cover their teeth with gold”[18]. Gudger thinks that the gold teeth is a bridge-like structure, and he questions whether they are taken off during sleep and eat[19]. Man shu states the reason for wearing gold teeth is “when they go out to see people on business, they use these as ornaments; they take them off to sleep and to eat”[20]. Henry Yule’s version of DW introduced another custom of Zardandan involving “gird their arms and legs with bands or filets pricked in black…It is considered a piece of elegance and the sign of gentility to have this band”[21]. In addition to bands, Man shu said the people also had hair knots and one piece lower garments[22]. These information were missing in DW, perhaps neglected for their lack of importance compared to having gold teeth. Although Gold Teeth was the only group of people described in DW for the Yongchang region, there are other groups inhabiting this region, and they all have body ornaments. Man shu records that other tribes include “The Barbarians (Man) ‘Black Teeth’, the Barbarians ‘Gold Teeth’, the Barbarians ‘Silver Teeth’, the Barbarians ‘Embroidered Legs’, and the Barbarians ‘Embroidered Faces’”[23]. DW claims the custom of wearing gold teeth is practiced by men and not by women[24]. Henry Yule introduces a counterargument from Ramusio, who says “both men and women use this gold case”[25]. Both Man shu and JA[26] seem to coincide with Ramusio, making no distinction “between men and women as to the use of gold teeth”[27]. This evidence indicates that it is more likely that both men and women wore gold teeth, contradicting Marco Polo’s account. If men and women both wore gold teeth, why does DW say that only men wore them?
The description of Zardandan introduces different roles played by men and women in the society. The men were involved with warfare and hunting, while the women and slaves did the rest[28]. This division of tasks has an important implication that men potentially had a higher social status than women in Zardandan. DW then describes another gender-based custom of Zardandan. “When the ladies have given birth and made a son, they wash them and wrap them in cloth; and the lady’s lord gets in bed and holds the infant with him and lies in bed for 40 days, not getting up except when necessary”[29]. The reason for this custom is that “his wife has endured great fatigue in carrying the child in her belly; therefore they say they don’t want her to endure any more during this 40-days period”. The husband could take care of the infant when he is crying or needs food. However, this description does not say that this is practiced for both sons and daughters; it specifically says that it is for sons. While Henry Yule’s version only says “a child”, making no distinction on son or daughter. It is hard to know which one is correctly translated. However, if the custom was only practiced for sons, it shows that the families were more attentive and caring to sons, and it is a sign of preference of sons over daughters in Gold Teeth. The custom as a whole can be seen as placing importance on women. It recognized the labor women go through to give birth to a child, and it asks the men to take on responsibilities to take care of the child. While some may doubt the reliability of this information and argue that the custom is too unusual to be real, Henry Yule argues that it is a prevalent practice in other cultures, therefore it could be real. The custom is called couvade or “hatching”, and it is found in South America, West Africa, and Southern India[30]. These findings around the world led Yule to conclude that the practice has deep roots in the consciousness of uncivilized people, eliminating the doubt on its reliability. Reading Henry Yule’s argument, I believe the description of the custom of couvade is generally reliable, but it is possible that he attributed a custom of other cultures to Zardandan. Man shu accounts a different custom regarding babies that was practiced by the Embroidered Face Barbarians (绣面蛮) in this region. It says that “one month after birth, have their face pricked with a needle, and then indigo is applied over it, giving it the appearance of embroidery”[31]. These customs on new born could mean bestowing good wishes and fortunes on the babies.
A peculiar custom in the regions Qarajang, Vocian, and Yachi is having magicians instead of doctors. In summary, the custom is having a sick man go to magicians, who get answers from spirits on how to cure him. The cure involves making drinks and sacrificing sheep to the spirits. If the man is pardoned, he would be cured immediately. Henry Yule quotes Sir A Phayre, “Marco Polo’s account…exactly resembles what is done in similar cases by the Burmese, except that I never saw animals sacrificed on such occasions”[32]. Burma shares a border with Vocian geographically. This quote that verifies the practice done by Burmese establishes strong reliability of Marco Polo’s account because of the geographical proximity of the two places. Yule again points out the prevalence of the practice “among the non-caucasian races over parts of the earth most remote from one another”[33]. The prevalence of the practice shows that Marco Polo’s account has a reliable origin, and the quote Sir A Phayre establishes the reliability of this description.
In other parts of China, there were practices regarding children. In the section on Manzi, DW describes that the King recorded the birth information and fed the discarded children[34]. Another practice was that the parents of the child “writes the day and the hour he was born”. Before traveling, people visit astronomers; give them their birth information; and ask whether it is good to travel[35]. There is an emphasis placed on birth. We see that Zardandan also place importance on child birth with their custom. In my opinion, the customs regarding women in the section on Cathay and the Western Southwestern provinces mark their low social status. The practice of making women have many lovers before marriage in Tibet and having foreigners lie with wifes in Jiandu all show their low social status and being objectified. Given that description in DW is not entirely reliable, we cannot conclude that women had low social status based on this description.
DW’s description of Zardandan is mostly reliable. The description of its location is limited but accurate. The Persian name Zardandan is an accurate representation of the original name Barbarian Gold Teeth (金齿蛮). The custom of couvade and having magicians, despite being unusual, are likely to be true given their prevalence and other testimonies. The tasks done by women and their role in the customs might suggest their lower social status in this society. It is important to know the reliability of the account, because it allows us to make conclusions on women’s social status and people’s religious beliefs, therefore obtaining a more accurate understanding of Zardandan people during the Yuan period.
Footnotes
[1]Wikipedia contributors. “Khubilai Khan.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 22 Dec. 2020. Web. 18 Dec. 2020.
[2] Morgan, David. The Mongols. Blackwell, 2008, kindle location 1364.
[3] “元代经营‘金齿’地区对 云南西南边疆的影响” “设官料民， 俾同内地” “土流结合，官不失职”
[4]Fan, Chuo. “Section 4.” In Man Shu, 863AD. 樊绰 《蛮书》. Chinese name of Yongchang is 永昌.
[5] Morgan, David. The Mongols. Blackwell, 2008, kindle location 1347.
[6]Pelliot, Paul. Notes on Marco Polo. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1963, pg. 604. It is a quote from Rashid al-Din
[7] Polo, Marco. The Description of the World, Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2016, pg 107. This is the only description on the location of Zardandan in DW.
[8] Pelliot, Paul. Notes on Marco Polo. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1963. It should be in Southwestern China, pg, 604.
[9] Fan, Chuo. “Section 4.” In Man Shu, 863AD.
[10] Abbreviation for Description of the World
[11]云南西部金齿和百夷的历史变迁
[12] Yule, Henry. The Book of Marco Polo, 1871, pg. 88.
[13] Yule, Henry. The Book of Marco Polo, 1871, pg. 88.
[14] Haeger, John W. (1978). “Marco Polo in China? Problems with Internal Evidence”. Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies. 14 (14): 22–30. JSTOR 23497510.
[15] Wood, Frances. Did Marco Polo Go to China? London: Secker & Warburg, 1995.
[16] Polo, Marco. The Description of the World, Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2016, pg 107.
[17] Fan, Chuo. “Section 4.” In Man Shu, 863AD. “金齿蛮以金缕片裹其齿。”
[18] Pelliot, Paul. Notes on Marco Polo. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1963, pg. 604.
[19] Gudger, E. W. “Marco Polo and Some Modern Things Old in the Asia of His Day.” The Scientific Monthly, vol. 37, no. 6, 1933, pp. 496–510.
[20] Fan, Chuo. “Section 4.” In Man Shu, 863AD. “有事由见人，则已此为饰，食则去之。”
[21] Yule, Henry. The Book of Marco Polo, 1871, pg. 85.
[22] Fan, Chuo. “Section 4.” In Man Shu, 863AD. “皆当顶为一髻，以青布为通身袴， 又斜披青布条。”
[23] Fan, Chuo. “Section 4.” In Man Shu, 863AD. “黑齿蛮，金齿蛮，银齿蛮，绣脚蛮，绣面蛮”
[24] Polo, Marco. The Description of the World, Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2016, pg 107.
[25] Yule, Henry. The Book of Marco Polo, 1871, pg. 88.
[26] Abbreviation for Jami’ al-tawarikh
[27] Pelliot, Paul. Notes on Marco Polo. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1963, pg. 605.
[28] Yule, Henry. The Book of Marco Polo, 1871, pg. 91.
[29] Polo, Marco. The Description of the World, Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2016, pg 107.
[30] Yule, Henry. The Book of Marco Polo, 1871, pg. 92.
[31] Fan, Chuo. “Section 4.” In Man Shu, 863AD. “绣面蛮出生后出月，以针刺面上，以青黛傅之。”
[32] Yule, Henry. The Book of Marco Polo, 1871, pg. 97.
[33] Yule, Henry. The Book of Marco Polo, 1871, pg. 97.
[34] Polo, Marco. The Description of the World, Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2016, pg 124.
[35] Polo, Marco. The Description of the World, Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2016, pg 135.
References
Polo, Marco. The Description of the World, Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy.library.nyu.edu/lib/nyulibrary-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4426656.
Wikipedia contributors. “Khubilai Khan.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 22 Dec. 2020. Web. 18 Dec. 2020.
吕隽. “元代经营‘金齿’地区对 云南西南边疆的影响”. Journal of Guangxi Normal University for Nationalities, 2019. CNKI, https://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2019&filename=NLSF201901007&v=6s5pC6WZgMSKn4EVqg38CXsTKa%25mmd2FPrptUSvR9F2u1%25mmd2FVBKruLlN5%25mmd2FTD2IrPmDnbqbd. Accessed 22 Dec. 2020.
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Gudger, E. W. “Marco Polo and Some Modern Things Old in the Asia of His Day.” The Scientific Monthly, vol. 37, no. 6, 1933, pp. 496–510. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/15539. Accessed 7 Dec. 2020.
Pelliot, Paul. Notes on Marco Polo. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1963.
Fan, Chuo. “Section 4.” In Man Shu, 863AD.
al-Din, Rashid. Jami’ Al-Tawarikh, n.d.
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Wood, Frances. Did Marco Polo Go to China? London: Secker & Warburg, 1995.
de Rachewiltz, Igor. “Marco Polo Went to China.” Zantralasiatische Studien 27 (1997): 34–92.